Gay marriage ethics

Gay marriage ethics Introduction The issue of civil rights for gays and lesbians, one in particular marriage; although many religious conservatives wish it would, will not go away. One of the reasons, for this is that the U.S. Supreme Court has struck down state anti-sodomy laws as unconstitutional and in light of the Michigan state Supreme Courts ruling that prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples violates their constitutional rights. Marriage has always been a huge part of human relationships. It is seen as the coming together of a man and a woman, the bonding two people together for emotional support, moral support and economic well being as well as the rearing of children. Most of society looks at marriage as a holy union of just one man and one woman. Does marriage have to be between just a man and women? This paper will examine both sides of the civil rights and moral dilemma that is facing the United States today. Identifying the Problem The issue of -gay marriage is one that has been very much in the forefront of public discussion in recent years, with states granting, then withdrawing marriage licenses to gay couples, wrangling over legislation as to whether to grant full marriage rights or establish domestic partnerships, and trying to come to grips with how to balance differing of public opinions on the subject, which are passionately at odds in some areas. Some believe that giving gay couples the full benefit of marriage will take away from the traditional marriage, while others feel they ought to have nothing less. Same-sex couples are denied their civil rights, such a making medical decisions for their partners in an emergency. Some of which have not been in contact with their families for years, hospitals are legally bound by state law to contact their next of kin for direction on issues pertaining to the health of the patient when their partner is right there. Even when wills and POAs (Power of Attorney) are made, they are sometimes fought by the family and overturned by a court. Is this right, morally or ethically? Married couples can not testify against their partner in a court of law, but gay partners do not get the same right. Another civil right is this fair? Clarify Concepts Giving way to legal acceptance to gay marriage would hurt society on a number of levels. First, legal identification of gay couples would legitimize morally wrong unions. Further,gay marriage would in the end fail marriage as the basis of an established society. Since gay unions cannot produce children through ordinary and proper procreation, such unions do not add to the survival of the human race. Furthermore, it is immoral to legitimize gay unions because it is not in the best interests of the children who might be adopted by gay couples. These children would be lacking of either the awareness of fatherhood or motherhood. Because cohabiting homosexuals can make use of various legal provisions to protect their rights, there is no need to allow gay couples the legal status of marriage, especially since such a change would threaten the common good. (Burns, 2002) There are many religious arguments and protests that are against gay marriage. Among these are the belief that gay couples are unnatural, marriage is sacred and a sacrament, the primary purpose of marriage is procreation, and marriage is defined as a union between a man and a woman. Many point to biblical scripture when arguing against gay marriage. Most religious opponents to gay marriage cite two passages from the Old Testament as proof of their point-of-view. The first of these is Leviticus 20:13: If a man lies with a man as one who lies with a woman, both of them have done what is repulsive. They must be put to death (Burns, 2002). Possible Solutions to the Problems Our society here in the United States needs to have more of an open mind when it comes to sexual preferences. The gay and lesbian community has been struggling for years for civil rights. We need to consider their right to be married whether in a civil ceremony or a church of their choosing. They should be allowed the same rights as any other American citizen. We should do this because it is the right thing to do. Our Pledge of Allegiance is under God with liberty and justice for all, not for who we choose. Religion should not dictate our morals or who should be allowed to marry. Civil liberties should dictate our morals and the quality of life for our people where we are all considered equal no matter what our religious, social, financial or political views are. We can also develop a Domestic Partnership into law for gay and lesbian citizens as another solution. This would allow homosexuals to be recognized as legal partners by each state and give them the same rights and responsibilities that heterosexuals have always claimed. Lets look at some of the arguments against gay marriage to see how they stand up. Solutions may be found by these by seeing that some of them just do not stand up..If the arguments do not make since then there must be a solution. Examine Assumptions and Points of View Opposition of gay marriage say that marriage is for the creation of children, if that is the case then why are couples that are infertile allowed to marry? Also should post menopausal woman and men who are impotent divorce because they can no longer procreate? How do they explain this? This does not make a good argument against gay marriage. (Bond,2008), Legalizing gaymarriagewould have a negative effect on the concept of monogamy in marriage. Homosexual advocates disagree that access to marriage will encourage gays and lesbians to conform to traditional monogamy in committed relationships. It is more likely that opening marriage to homosexuals will allow them to legitimize non monogamy, civil partnerships unrelated to sexual or romantic relationships, and polyamory (sexual relationships among more than two people). Without monogamy as a founding principle, marriage will no longer provide a stable and healthy setting for families and especially children to thrive. If gaymarriage is legalized, the institution of marriage will be deprived of monogamy and thus any hope of permanence.( Kurtz 2005) I believe that this is a fallacy based on scare tactics, somewhat like the Bush administration idea of going to war with Iraq. There have been legalized gay marriages in other states and other countries for years; would there not be news about polygamy and the non-monogamy because of gay marriage? The biblical passage in Corinthians 6:9-10 Do not be deceived. Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor male prostitutes nor homosexual offenders nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanders nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God (Bible). After gaymarriage, what will become of marriage itself? Will same-sex matrimony extend marriages stabilizing effects to homosexuals? Will gaymarriage undermine family life? A lot is riding on the answers to these questions. But the medias impulsive labeling of doubts about gaymarriage as homophobia has made it almost impossible to debate the social effects of this reform. Now with the Supreme Courts ringing affirmation of sexual liberty in Lawrence v. Texas, that debate is unavoidable (Kurtz, 2005). Gay marriage causes offense to everything religion stands for. What or whose religion does this stand for? Christian religion yes it does and also Islam and Judaism, but a Buddhist sect in Hawaii does support the right of gay marriage (Bidstrup 2009). Gather Information The opposition of gay marriage is based on misunderstanding of what homosexuality really is. There are stereotypical views about gay relationships, that they are promiscuous, and cannot form a lasting relationship. I am sure that they are no different than straight relationships. We have promiscuous and lasting relationships. It sometimes human nature, especially among young people who are not ready to â€Å"settle down† its not based on if you are gay or straight. So what is marriage for? Modern marriage is, of course, based upon traditions that religion helped to codify and enforce. But religious doctrine has no special standing in the world of secular law and policy, the Christian nation crowd notwithstanding (Rauch, J 1997). If we want to know what and whom marriage is for in modern America, we need a sensible secular doctrine. Many people believe that gays have a choice in being who they are, and it is only about sex. They can choose to be with a member of the opposite sex if they want to be. Homosexually is based on mutual attraction, affection and love; the same as heterosexuals. It is no different than being white, black, or Chinese it is the way you are born. Gay marriage is morally wrong and violates the sanctified institution of marriage. This is said by the Bible. The United States and American law is supposed to be separate from the church; this is from one of our founding fathers Thomas Jefferson. Therefore it is not right for someone to use the Bible to say what is to be made into law (Bidstrup 2009).. Gay couples are not morally able to raise children but, it is morally right for child molesters, murders, and convicted felons are allowed to marry and create and raise children. Why are the same people who oppose these rights to gay couples not against this, it happens every day. There are not studies that have determined that gay couples raising children caused them any harm, Can the same be said be said by child molester? Moral Reasoning Gay marriage principles are, in my opinion, no different than those in a heterosexual marriage. They want the same thing in a marriage that anyone does that chooses a partner for life. Their values are the same, they are loyal to their partners, are monogamous. They participate in family life, committed to their neighborhoods and communities by making them a better place to live. They serve on their school boards, volunteer in the community, they are good citizens, just like their heterosexual counterparts, making their communities a better place to live (Bidstrup 2009). One of the benefits of the heterosexual society as well as the homosexual community for gay marriage is the participants are not involved in promiscuous sex. This slows down the spread of sexually transmitted diseases; by the way know no sexual orientations. I am a supporter on gay marriage, I believe in all equal rights for all people no matter race, gender, or sexual preference. I believe in the separation of Church and State. It should have no bearing on our laws and moral reasoning when it comes to making our laws; as long as our rights do not infringe on our fellow citizens rights. Most public officials place their hands on the Bible and swear to uphold the Constitution. They dont put their hands on the Constitution and swear to uphold the Bible (Bond J., 2008). I think that religion and scripture are used to keep gay marriage from becoming legal. Our government uses religion when they think it is necessary for their advantage. That is wrong. The Bible was written long ago, there are so many contradictions in it and I believe that it was meant for the time it was written in and for a specific people. In our society today there are several injustices that are more important that our law makers should be concentrating on than opposing gay marriage. Let us move forward. Consequences When and if gay marriage is passed they will receive the same benefits of heterosexual couples. They will enjoy the same contented lifestyle that a two income family has. In todays economic society it most often takes two incomes to keep up with the middle class. The social benefits will be sharing insurance benefits, healthcare, tax filing as a joint couple, joint ownership, and ability to make medical decisions for each other. Social Security, property inheritance, and family medical leave and military disability benefits are just a few more that heterosexual marriage couples have. The argument about homosexuals not being able to procreate, although partly true, lesbian can certainly procreate by artificial insemination, and that they could harm children by raising them shows no scientific evidence. Gay marriage would increase adoptions; there are many children that are in need of homes by loving parents and extended families. This would be a positive step for children that do not have a home. One of the most successful approvals for gay marriage is that they will no longer be second class citizens by being on the lower part of the social standing. The homosexual community should no longer have to be denied their equal civil rights. We are all created equal and that includes everyone, it is not based on our sexual preference. If gay marriage is legalized they will no longer be subjected to narrow-mindedness every day. Bidstrup, S. 2009, Gay Marriage, The Arguments and the Motives, Retrieved March 1, 2010. http//www.bidstrup.com/marriage.htm Bond, Julian. Opposing Same-Sex Marriage Discriminates Against Gays. Opposing Viewpoints: Discrimination. Ed. Jacqueline Langwith. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2008. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. Baker College. 28 Feb. 2010 Burns, K. 2005 Congregation for The Doctrine of The Faith. Gay Marriage Should Not Be Legal. At Issue: Gay Marriage.. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. Baker College. 28 Feb. 2010 Kurtz, Stanley. Gay Marriage Threatens Families. At Issue: Gay and Lesbian Families. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale. Baker College. 28 Feb. 2010 Rauch, J., Society Has a Compelling Interest in Allowing Gay Marriage, Current Controversies: Gay Rights, San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1997, Retrieved March 2, 2010, Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Gale, Baker College

Mediatek India Technology Private Limited Essay -- manufacturing compan

Mediatek is a leading manufacturing company in India and also has a major share outside the country. Here, I have tried to analyse the strengths and weaknesses present in the company. What are the different opportunities and threats present in the external environment for the company? Strengths: Mediatek makes the technology that’s at the heart of the things that we use every day. Its strength lies in optimising system design, perfectly integrating software and hardware design to offer users an uninterrupted and always connected technology by providing smartphones, tablets and dual SIM experience. It’s riding high on amking cheap, user friendly smartphones across Asia. Global presence, technology, innovation and taking care of customer’s taste and preference are some its strength over its competitors. Weakness: The weakness for the company is that being a manufacturing company it belongs to a mature industry which means that it faces tough competition and there is small room for growth. Opportunities: It is a knowledge dependent company with highly specialised workers which makes it difficult for the low wage countries to compete in this market segment. The shipments of Mediatek jumped 80% in volume terms to more than 200 million in 2013. It held 47% share in the Chinese market year, up 14% points from 2012 and outstripping its rival Qualcomm of the U.S, the world’s largest market of chips for mobile devices that pushed Mediatek’s sales 37% higher on the year to a record 136 billion New Taiwan dollars( $ 4.52 billion) ( source: The Nikkie) Threats: Rising price of manufacturing in the global economy poses a threat to the company. Intense competition from Broadcom, Spreadtrum and Qualcomm is also a major concern for the... ...ce has a great impact on the achievement of the organisational performance as a whole. Works Cited Flippo, E.B (1984), Personnel Management (sixth edition) .( K.A Meyer), Mc Graw: Hill Book Company Beach D.S. (1975), Personnel: the management of people at work, New York: Macmillan Thompson, K.R. & Luthans, F. (1990), â€Å"Oragnisational Culture: A behavioural Perspective,† In Schneider, B. (ed), Organisational climate and Culture, Oxford: Jessey-Bass, Chapter 9 Kumari, Neeraj (2012), â€Å"a study of the recruitment and selection process: SMC Global†, volume 2, No.1, 2012 Ishrat, Ghazala (2013), â€Å"Comparative study of recruitment and selection, training and development policies in Indian MNCs and foreign MNCs†, Journal of business and management, volume 7, issue 5 Dessler, Garry(2005), Human Resource Management, Tenth edition www.ibef.org www.mediatek.com

Birth and Beyond :: essays research papers

Birth & Beyond of Sacramento, is a non-profit health care agency whose main focus is to provide family support services in a form of family resource centers and home visitations where a personal home visitor is recruited from the same neighborhood they serve to provide the caregiver the help he/she needs on how to give a better care for the child. Their mission is to support the caregiver in all areas such as job referral and training, how best to communicate with other parents in the neighborhood, the best way to overcome obstacles that the family might be facing, and how to better use the community resources such as transit system or comprehensive health care services. All these services are provided until the age of five of the youngest child in the family. The family resource centers offers support in budgeting, parenting groups, health, immunization, overall child development, class sessions for anybody who would like to learn Spanish, English, Hmong, or Russian, and Play and G row groups which are parent/child bonding classes through arts and crafts and kid connection. In addition to the family resource centers and the home visitations, families also have the support of the team of consultants and specialists such as Nurses and Family health counselors, joined together to coordinate a full range of services for the families. (www.birth-beyond.com/Content/Learn-Participate/Learn_More.htm). The geographical area served by Birth & Beyond is the Sacramento County which houses nine different Family Resource Centers. Each resource center is responsible for certain zip codes areas of the Sacramento County. Many serve up-to five different zip code areas, however Meadowview Family Resource Center only serves the zip codes 95822, 95831, and 95832. (www.birth-beyond.com/Content/Locations/FRC_map.htm). According to Heather Blanchard, Meadowview Family Resource Center serves one hundred and thirty families, in which fifteen are Spanish speaking families and five are English speakers. Home visitation services are provided to ten families. This center has the capacity to serve two hundred families. Birth & Beyond is open to anyone who would like to improve the care of their children. However, since Meadowview Family Resource Center is located on Florin Road, the population that frequents this facility the most is Spanish speakers. The youngest client at this facility as of now is a fifteen year old female who started attending at this facility at the age of thirteen and the oldest person is forty-one. This facility is visited by 99% females and .

Subjectivity Of Justice Amongst Societies English Literature Essay

Schlink efficaciously employs word picture through the supporter Michael Berg to exemplify the cardinal subjectiveness of different sorts of justness portrayed throughout history. As a reader we are presented with a German society where most persons were either involved or affected, both straight and indirectly by World War II. This is besides no exclusion with the life affecting Michael, with his male parent being expelled from his university talking station because of his bizarre doctrines which were against Hitler ‘s purposes. Michael is portrayed as a naif kid raised in a society plagued with the load of war. While at his most guiltless point in his life, a vulnerable Michael begins a insouciant relationship with Hanna, a former SS guard at the Auschwitz concentration cantonment. From this Schlink highlights Michael ‘s exposures and how Hanna uses her laterality and mature temptingness to command Michael ‘s naif nature. Her actions are finally the cause of Micha el ‘s development from an guiltless kid into an emotionless adult male which acts as a polar point in the development of the text ‘s major subjects. This is because Schlink so presents Michael ‘s narrative throughout the text as undependable, which is symbolic of the subjectiveness of justness amongst societies. In the tribunal tests sing Hanna, different events are retold as through the narrative an undependable recount is given which reiterates the subjectiveness of all versions of history which lead to justness. This is reiterated through Michael ‘s comments on his changeless cunctation and how they support Schlink ‘s usage of Michael ‘s undependability to portray the subjectiveness of justness, † But today I can acknowledge that events back so were portion of a life-long form in which thought and making have either come together or failed to come together-I think, I reach a decision, I turn the decision into a determination † From the finding of fact of the test, Schlink forces the reader to finally question justness through the tribunal system and one version of events warrants the harshest of all humane punishments. Although Hanna ‘s actions were inhumane, as a reader we are positioned through narrative to experience sympathetic and believe although her actions should n't be condoned, as a reader we should oppugn who has the ultimate incrimination. This is done by sing who should be brought to justice more righteously, the caputs of evil governments, or their pawns bring downing enduring while non to the full being metaphorically illiterate to what is go oning. Schlink efficaciously uses symbolism to uncover the ignorance of the German people post the Nazi Regime and how the bequest of guilt still remains evident. This is particularly the instance through the symbolism casted by Schlink when associating to Hanna ‘s illiteracy. Throughout the bulk of the text it becomes progressively evident that Hanna is illiterate. This is first foreshadowed by Schlink one time Michael leaves a note which Hanna can non read, so in an effort decode it, she assumes it is about him go forthing and as a consequence she punishes him with her â€Å" leather supporter belt † to exert her authorization, cutting his lip in the procedure. It is so discovered she had resigned from several occupations due to frights of being incapable and society going aware of her illiteracy. In kernel her illiteracy is symbolic of the moral illiteracy of the German society and how the bequest of guilt remains. Although Hanna is illiterate, this does non needfully intend she is an invalid. Her function in the Nazi government was one forced by societal economic force per unit areas and was unable to grok the true badness of her actions. The German society mirrors her actions through the ignorance expressed throughout society. The moral illiteracy through ignorance becomes evident during the tribunal proceedings where Hanna is under scrutiny from the justice, and in an effort to warrant her actions she beckons to the justice â€Å" what would you hold done? † The justice is so baffled and moves on towards the following topic as she repeats the same inquiry momently after. Schlink illustrates Hanna ‘s illiteracy to symbolically stand for a true appraisal of an nescient Germany society, plagued with moral illiteracy that are unable to grok the agony felt by the Judaic people. As a reader we are so positioned to contemplate the inquiries associating to justness and disapprobation being presented to us by Schlink. It becomes evident that Sch link conveys the audience to be positioned to oppugn how a society can judge those who have done incorrect, while their ignorance has done nil to forestall or handle any farther wrong. Once once more Schlink uses symbolism to uncover how corporate guilt burdens an person. This is revealed through Hanna ‘s realization of her actions through the tribunal room and her clip in prison. Before her realization she led a life of illiteracy which so reflected her actions, nevertheless while in prison she was given hope by Michael for a new found life. This was done through the changeless sending of audio books recorded by Michael. Slowly Hanna began to understand literature and this is when she realised the full extent of her actions. Schlink portrays Hanna ‘s self-destruction as a agency of going free from the collective guilt which was placed onto her. Symbolically Schlink uses an old tea box to function as Hanna ‘s manner of seeking forgiveness to her lasting victim. Michael follows her concluding wants and finally travels trying to manus over the gift as a mark of Hanna ‘s forgiveness. The writer gracefully diminutions but is pleased to have a po rtion of the gift, a tea box which reminds her of one she one time possessed whilst in the cantonment. Schlink illustrates this minute as the sympathetic rapprochement scene where Hanna ‘s bequest is continued, with forgiveness sought.

John Dryden Translator of Virgil Essay

John Dryden translated Virgil in the late 1690’s when more than fifty Englishmen before him had tried to translate at least some Virgil and many translated after his death in the seventeenth century as John Denham and Edmund Waller. What makes Dryden’s translation the most successful version, the most read and accepted between its competitors? How did Dryden translate his Virgil and why? And what kind of response did his translation receive at the time? â€Å"Without invention a painter is but a copier, and a poet but a plagiary of others. Both are allowed sometimes to copy and translate†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Dryden stated that he used paraphrase and literal translation when translating Virgil, which allowed him the liberty of modernizing it. Dryden believes that he used what was best in matter, form and style in translating Virgil by means of paraphrasing, rephrasing, and changing some phrases which when translated word for word would produce an odd meaning of the terms. â€Å"Imitators are but a servile of cattle† says Dryden, the reason why he didn’t want just to imitate Virgil, but personalize and domesticate his translation. By doing this, Dryden transformed Virgil’s poems, and particularly the Aeneid, into autobiographical and personal statements. So, how did he do this? Dryden used the political background of the events that happened in Rome and paralleled them to recent political events to express his personal opinions. By the way of adding and modifying phrases, Dryden changes the tone of the first Eclogue from melancholy to bitter, transforming the poem to express his own depressed spirit. This spirit changes and develops further in the ninth Eclogue which has a similar background as the first. Here, Dryden makes full use of the poem to attack literally the Williamite government, where he accuses it of killing his creativity. He substitutes â€Å"the corrupt city† of Virgil by â€Å"the Court† continuing with his bitter feelings towards the Establishment with phrases like â€Å"the Bribes of Court†. Furthermore, the Virgil volume was dedicated to non- Williamite noblemen. Dryden’s loathing of William often makes him bring hostility to foreignness in Virgil. His Virgil has been seen as a Jacobite work, supporting the exiled James II. Another huge background change was the introduction of Christian universe. Dryden introduces Christian terms to the Virgil, replacing the Roman paganism. He introduces â€Å"Heaven† with all its Christian connotations, replacing Virgil’s words for the gods, the fates, and fortune. This new Christian conception changes the character and mission of the hero. Aeneas is transformed into a Christian who bears his misfortunes with patience as he is on a divine mission. â€Å"I have endeavour’d to make Virgil speak such English as he wou’d himself have spoken, if he had been born in England, and in this present Age† As to the language of translation, Dryden’s version has many identical traces with the works of many others who preceded him. Dryden is thought to have read at least forty of the previous Virgil translations. He is thought to have borrowed many of Douglas’s word translations; Chaucer’s rhymed couplets and most of all, Lauderdale’s word rhymes. Dryden â€Å"thought it fit to steer betwixt the two Extreams, of Paraphrase, and Literal Translation† and stated that â€Å"Some things too I have omitted, and sometimes added of my own†. â€Å"But by what Authority? † , asked Luke Milbourne angrily. From its first appearance, Dryden’s Virgil was canonized. His most distinguished antagonists are Swift and Wordsworth. Swift wrote â€Å"A Tale of a Tub† which takes aim at Dryden, intending his demolition but failed enormously and may have even contributed to Dryden’s sale. Wordsworth wrote â€Å"whenever Virgil can be fairly said to have had his eye upon his object, Dryden always spoils the passage. † Milbourne, in his â€Å"Notes on Dryden’s Virgil†, details objections to nearly six hundred separate passages, and supplies many alternatives of his own or Ogilby’s renderings, saying that although his words are not well placed, but they keep the original meaning of Virgil. Spence in his Polymetis , an illustrated mythology book, advances numerous objections to Dryden’s Virgil. Another attack is from E. M. W. Tillyard who objects on his crudity, vulgarity, or sometimes over-gentility. Samuel Johnson remarked that â€Å"Dryden’s faults are forgotten in the hurry of delight, and Pitt’s beauties are neglected in the languor of a cold and listless perusal. † Dryden’s style aims at the clarification of Virgil and transparency of translation. By domestication, and parallelism of the political background, Dryden was able to produce an epic which came alive after centuries, by adding to it his passions, senses and the concerns of his own age. Sources: * Dryden’s Virgil: Translation as Autobiography, Thomas H. Fujimura, University of North Carolina Press, 1983 * Dryden’s Virgil, William Frost, CL summer 1984, Volume 36, # 3. * John Dryden, Preface to Ovid’s Epistles, in Of Dramatic Poesy and Other Critical essays, ed. George Watson (London, 1962) II, p. 195. * Dryden, J ; (1956) â€Å"Preface to Ovid’s Epistles† (1680), in E. N. Hooker and H. T. Swedenberg, Jr. (eds), The works of John Dryden, vol. 1, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. * Luke Milbourne, Notes on Dryden’s Virgil (1698 ; rpt. New York and London, 1971) pp. 32, 80, 136 * Dryden : The Critical Heritage, ed. James Kinsley and Helen Kinsley (London and New York, 1971), p. 324 * Joseph Spence, Polymetis (1747; rpt. New York and London, 1976) * The Cambridge Companion to Virgil, (ed. ) Charles Martindale: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 31

Botticelli-Saville Comparitive Art Essay

The image of the nude is timeless, fundamental and universal. It has the ability to incite intense interest, yearning and even repulsion in the viewer. We often find that images of the nude reflect upon society’s attitudes towards beauty and gender issues. These issues are strongly highlighted in Jenny Saville’s nakedly confrontational ‘Propped’, which encompasses of a heavy-handed naked woman sitting on a stool. Her artwork forces the viewer to think of the female nude as not only an object, but also as a subject. Botticelli’s ‘Birth of Venus’ also addresses the issues of beauty and gender. In the artwork, Venus appears to be emerging from the sea, standing in a shell. Symbolising female desirability, the Early Renaissance painting is in accordance to the myth of her ‘birth’ as a fully grown woman. The shape and form in Propped is clearly drastically distorted. Saville has used foreshortening as a way to emphasise the weight and size of the figures body, most noticeably the small scale of the head, which looks incredibly small in contrast to the rest of the figure. Foreshortening and tone help to create a distinctive look of the figures legs and knees. There are various patches of light tones included across the chest area and knees, and the extreme distortion makes them look vast and almost bruised. There is limited colour used in the painting, mainly very natural pigments such as white, cream and light pink. Black has been used for the stool in the centre of the image, and coffee and olive colours can be seen in the background. There is also a text that can be seen scratched into the paint in mirror writing, running across and down the figures body which reads; ‘If we continue to speak in this sameness – speak as men have spoken for centuries, we will fail each other again’. Saville has painted the artwork to make a point; to make the viewer realise that fat is a feminist issue. The angle of view in the artwork is low, and the observer is made to look up at the figure. In Birth of Venus, Botticelli has used light, soothing colours throughout all aspects of the painting, including highlights added into Venus’ hair to possibly emphasise the femininity of her body. Distinctive linear style and brushstrokes have been used to ensure detail in the tones and textures of the painting. Botticelli was known for including the linear style into his artworks, a style that was revived in the late 19th century. The composition of the painting is impartially balanced. The artist has placed the figures in the artwork off to separate sides with Venus centred as the focal point. The weight and poses of the figures either side of Venus create symmetrical balance. The figure of Venus is slightly distorted. Botticelli has exaggerated the length of the neck and slope of the shoulders to enrich Venus’ natural elegance and grace. Flowing lines and decorative patterns can be seen throughout the artwork, most noticeably in the waves and leaves on the tree towards the right of the painting. Propped has the same effect as a striking photograph; that it is purposely intended to unsettle its viewer. It is a significant artwork in today’s society as it raises contemporary concerns about expectations of beauty in the female body. Unlike Birth of Venus, Propped presents us with the vibe that the observer is not necessarily male. Feminists have praised Saville for her work and her interpretation of the female nude, noting that she has reclaimed the image of women liberating it from the diminishing male gaze. Botticelli owes his inspiration for Birth of Venus to the classical ideals of ancient Greek art. At the time of its creation, almost all art was of a Christian theme. Nude women often symbolised sinful lust, however Venus remained to appear modest, attempting to hide her breasts with her hands and crotch area with her long, blonde, flowing hair. Venus strongly represented an Italian Renaissance ideal; blonde, pale-skinned voluptuous. Ideal female body figures continue to be a topic of discussion in our society today, as it was at the time Birth of Venus was produced. Both artists have used the female nude as a way to represent issues about expectations of beauty in the female body in different ways. Botticelli has depicted Venus, the pagan goddess of love, and the forerunner of spring. He has presented her as an ideal female figure for his time, consequently making her a symbol for female desirability. Jenny Saville, on the other hand, has dramatically cropped and foreshortened the female figure in her artwork in an attempt to emphasise the body’s physical bulk, creating a less than ideal female figure for contemporary society. Propped contains a strong cultural meaning, as do many of Saville’s works. Susie McKenzie speaks of her artworks in an interview with Saville in the Guardian on October 22nd 2005, stating that â€Å"Her exaggerated nudes point up, with an agonizing frankness, the disparity between the way women are perceived and the way that they feel about their bodies. † Saville has clearly represented the female nude in a way that may confront today’s society, daring her viewers to pass judgement on the figure in her artwork. Birth of Venus challenges the culture of Botticelli’s time, as it was a mythological painting, rather than relating to a religious theme as most art of that era did. Both artworks in question are figurative paintings of female nudes. Birth of Venus exists to represent the female nude as a symbol of desirability in women, as well as an icon of beauty and pleasure. Saville’s ‘Propped’ raises questions on the appearance and role of traditional paintings of the nude, such as Birth of Venus. Both artists gained inspiration from a variety of sources, all diverse from one another. Botticelli created Birth of Venus under the influences from classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as classical sculptures he would have seen belonging to the Medici family, a client of his own. Saville spent time quenching her fascination with the body, particularly female flesh, by spending many hours watching plastic surgeons manipulate flesh. Gender issues are a strong concept in both works. A male viewing Propped will generally react negatively to the female figure in contrast to the way they might perceive Birth of Venus. Because Birth of Venus is such a strong symbol of female desirability, a male viewer will usually prefer looking at Venus rather than the heavy-handed nude figure in Propped. Women will more commonly be able to relate to the figure in Propped than Birth of Venus as it centres on issues of expectations of beauty and the way a female may feel about her body, whereas some women could be intimidated by the ambiance of Venus. Both Propped and Birth of Venus are of immense scale. Birth of Venus was painted to fit an architectural setting. At the time of its production, Botticelli intended for the observers of his artwork to view the subject matter, Venus, as an earthly goddess who stimulated humans to physical love, or as a heavenly goddess who enthused intellectual love in them. The interpretation of today’s society will differ, due to the lack of knowledge of mythological and ancient Greek themes. It has been suggested that viewers of our time will look at the painting and feel their minds simply lifted to the realm of divine love. Saville’s work has been made to be presented in galleries and exhibitions. The scale of her work (213. x 183cm) is used to overwhelm the viewer, and demands an uncomfortable degree of intimacy between the gaze of the nude figure and the observer. Her purpose of creating the artwork was to raise questions about the expectations of beauty in today’s society. We are under the impression that the viewer of this type of artwork is generally female, and Saville wants her female observers to pass judgement of the figures enormous shape and size. Propped challenges the ideal view of women, as it depicts a hefty female nude figure rather than a slim one, which is usually preferred in current society. Birth of Venus, however, provokes themes of beauty and lust, ideal to men and perhaps most other viewers. It is important to keep in mind that both artworks have been painted by different genders. Saville raises concerns about the representation of the female nude, which could be connected to the fact that she relates to the figure as a woman, and possibly faces the pressures of the anticipation and desire for beauty in her own life. Botticelli represents both beauty and pleasure in the symbolical Birth of Venus. It is an important painting not only for the Renaissance, but for our society also. This may be because Venus characterized the idealistic figure of a woman, an issue that is consistently apparent in everyday life for not only women, but also men. Women may feel intimidated or disconcerted when viewing Venus as they could feel personally uncomfortable with their own figure. Its main intention is to bring pleasure to the male eye. In brief, both artworks continue to play a significant role in society today because of these intentions, gender issues and representation of the female nude.

Z Score

MN 215 A & B October 02, 2012 Z Scores, Z Tests and t Tests Overview and Review At the beginning of the course we learned that there are two branches of statistics, namely, parametric and non-parametric. Further we learned that parametric statistical processes are broken down into two other categories, namely descriptive statistical processes and inferential. We learned also that descriptive statistics (mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and frequencies) are only to be used to describe the characteristics of the data rather than draw conclusions of make inferences from the measurement data collected.However, the importance of descriptive statistics cannot be undermined as they form the basis for the workings of inferential statistical processes – especially the mean. In data analysis one of the most important concepts to remember is that regardless of the topic or issue being investigated all is based on the mean of a data set. Although we cannot draw conclusion or make p redictions from descriptive statistics their usefulness in inferential statistics is significant.As stated inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that is used in making inferences about traits or characteristics of a greater population on the basis of sample measurement data. The primary goal of inferential statistics is to leap beyond the measurement data at hand and make inferences about a greater population. Take for example a psychologist who is interested in knowing whether a new behavior modification product will likely be a seller in a certain market area.Knowing that the entire consumer population cannot be queried as to market acceptance, the psychologist would select a representative sample for the area, administer whatever measurement instrument is necessary to garner the data and, on the basis, of the sample data results, determine whether or not the new product will be profitable. The statistic used to determine whether or not the sample is representative of t he entire market population would be an inferential statistics.When using inferential statistical processes to generate information in order to make predictions about a larger population the chosen sample must always be on the basis of random selection or random assignment. Without random sampling or random assignment the mathematical values received by way of the statistical analysis are in err. Or, another way of putting is to say that the results would be â€Å"Lies, damn lies† about the data analyzed. For convenience purposes throughout the remainder of this course the following symbols will be used most extensively.Statisticians, regardless of area, use English letters to denote sample statistics and Greek letters to symbolize population parameters. NameSample StatisticPopulation Parameter _ MeanX  µ (mu) VarianceSD? ? 2 (sigma squared) Standard DeviationSD ? (sigma) Correlationr ? (rho) Proportionp ? (pi) Regression Coefficient b ? ( beta)? ? When trying to arrive at conclusions that extend from the measurement data alone, inferential statistics are the data analysis tools of choice.For example, inferential statistics are used to infer from the sample data to the larger population data or when there is an need to make judgments of the probability that an â€Å"observed† difference between groups is an accurate and dependable one and not those that happened by chance alone. In order too accomplish that which inferential statistics were designed two models are available: estimation testing and hypothesis testing. In the estimation model the sample measurement data is used to estimate a parameter (population) and a confidence interval about the estimate is created.The confidence interval is basically the range of values that has a high likelihood of containing the parameter. The parameter is a numerical value that measures some part or the population measurement scores or values. The second use of inferential statistical processes is in hypo thesis testing. The most common manner in which a hypothesis is tested is by developing what is commonly called a â€Å"straw man† which is what a null hypothesis is call when looking at a situation where in the research investigator wants to determine if the data collected and analyzed is strong enough to reject the null or â€Å"straw man† hypothesis.Always remember that a null hypothesis is stated that no differences, effects or relationships will occur between and or amongst the events, occurrences, phenomenon, items, or situations being evaluated and measured as a result of some variable. A simple example of a business null hypothesis would be something like the following: There exists no statistically significant difference between widgets made of alloy A and those made of Alloy B in terms of tinsel strength acceptability. Data Requirements When Using Inferential Statistics.Thinking back to the first part of the course we learned that statistical processes must u se certain forms of numeric measurement data and this data is expressed as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. For descriptive statistics (frequencies and measures of central tendency) it is nominal data that is used. For inferential statistics the measurement data types to be used are either interval or ratio. However, in the social sciences and business arenas ordinal data is often times treated like interval. This is particularly true when studies attempt to assess situations by way of a Lickert scale.For convenience and review the scale presented below will help to clarify the differences between the four scales of measurement discussed earlier in the course. Indications Indicated Direction ofIndicates Amount of Absolute Difference Difference Difference Zero NominalX OrdinalX X IntervalX X X RatioX X X On the basis of the information contained in the table above the following two conditions apply when using inferential statistical processes: * Participants selected for partici pation in a study should be selected randomly. If sampling is not random, then biases occur and contaminate the accuracy of the findings. The most commonly used inferential statistics that behavioral research uses are those statistical processes that provide for the determination of relationships (correlations), differences and effects between and amongst that which is being measured or evaluated. The specific tests used are the Pearson Correlation Coefficient, Chi Square, Student â€Å"t† Test, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), and regression. All of these techniques not only require the use of a null hypothesis but independent and dependent variables as well. Z ScoresCalculating the Z Score for Research Purposes. One of the most often used statistical processes in the behavioral sciences is the Z Score. What a Z Score accomplishes is in taking a raw measurement value or score and transforms it into a standard form which then provides a more meaningful description of the individ ual scores within the distribution. This transformation is based on knowledge about the population's mean and standard deviation. Take for example an educational psychologist who is interested in determining how individual students are comparing to the overall group of students with respect to grades.As we have learned before raw scores alone cannot provide insightful information to the psychologist how well an individual student is performing. However, what the psychologist can easily do is calculate a Z Score for each student and determine whether or not an individual student is functioning above or below the mean grade of all students together. When determining the placement of each individual, the Z Score permits the psychologist to calculate how many standard deviations, or the distance, each student is above or below the mean grade of all students together.If there is an academic standard the psychologist is using as a comparative base a different statistical formula is used c ompared to the formula needed when comparing individual performance to a local sample of student. The formulas for each are presented below. Comparing Individual to Population Standard Comparing Individual to Sample Standard The construction of the two formulas is the same with the exception that one uses the mean and standard deviation of a population and the other of a sample.What is very important to remember, especially for the psychologist, is that comparing an individual to a local academic setting may have entirely different results when the same student is compared to the industry standard. Although this might appear to be a dilemma, it is actually a possible â€Å"blessing in disguise†. Take for example the same psychologist compares all his students’ rate of academic success in a local facility and determines they are all functioning well above average, or above the mean, in their grades.What happens if the same students are compared to an academic standard a nd the results show their grade is well below the industry standard or population mean? The conclusion drawn is, therefore, that the students, although having grades are not in line with other educational facilities and corrective programming to increase the performance rate must ensue. For ease of understanding let us look at a business situation. Example. Suppose an employee is producing 3. 5 widgets per hour and the sample average number of widgets per hour is 2. 3 with a standard deviation of 0. 33. The Z Score would be calculated as follows: X = raw score X bar = mean s = standard deviation From this we can conclude that the employee’s widget production rate per hour of 3. 5 lays 1. 73 standard deviations above the mean. We can conclude further that this employee is function above the mean all others together on the production line in terms of widget production and that the employee is doing better than 95% of the other employees and only 5% of the total employees are pr oducing more widgets.NOTE: The percentages are easily found on the back of the very last page of your text book. As stated earlier caution must be exercised when drawing conclusions about a single business sample as the statistical information garnered might not be representative of industry standards. Looking at the same employee on an industry standard basis the information might possibly be different. Taking the same employee with an average widget production rate of 3. 5 widgets per hour with a hypothetical population or industry standard mean of 4. 9 and a population standard deviation of 1. 15 the results would be as follows using the formula stated above: X = Employee raw production score  µ = Population standard mean ? = Population standard deviation Z = (3. 5 – 4. 79) / 1. 15 = -1. 12 What can be readily seen by way of the negative value Z Score is that the employee falls below the standard industry mean with respect to the number of widgets produced in one hour. C oncluding further we can say that this employee standing is surpassed by 64% of the entire population workforce for he company. Needless to say, the manager needs to take a serious look at the quality of workers in his/her plant. Interpreting the Z Score for Research Purposes. When using Standard Z Scores one must always remember that comparisons are made between individual measurement values and sample or population mean values. At no time can a one use Z Score values to make predictions or drawn inferences about any given situation. To accomplish this, inferential statistical processes must be used.The value of the Z Score lies in the idea that individual tracking is necessary and trends can be plotted. Also, one must always keep in mind that X values do not have to be simple individual raw scores but can also reflect any investigative variable the researcher chooses to investigate. â€Å"Z† Test When to use the Z Test over the â€Å"t† Test in Research. Although bot h the Z test and the â€Å"t† test are used in research decision hypothesis testing each is used under a different set of circumstances than the other. The primary distinction between the two lies in the sample size requirement.Where â€Å"t† tests can be used for small samples the Z Test cannot and is, therefore, reserved for sample situations that are larger. Both, however, perform the same function, namely to determine whether or not there are differences between the samples being evaluated or comparisons between sample and population measurements. In addition both the Z and â€Å"t† tests make use of the mean scores for raw measurement data when calculating differences. Presented below are some examples of using both the Z test and â€Å"t† test in business today. Z Test: A product safety engineer wants to investigate the average number of possible defective products in worldwide production. A sample is drawn sample (in excess of 30) and mean of the s ample is compared to the population mean for evaluation. * Z Test: A psychologist wants to investigate whether or not a 10 hour shift will record more safety accidents in product production compared to the company wide population standard of eight hour shifts. * Z Test: A human resource manager wants to investigate whether or not a new employee training program will increase production numbers company wide. â€Å"t† Test: A psychologist wants to investigate whether or not the sample of 20 line employees of plant A are producing a significantly greater number of products than the sample of 20 employees of plant A. * â€Å"t† Test: A consumer product safety manager wants to investigate whether or not his small firm is producing an equal number of safe products compared to the industry standard. * â€Å"t† Test: A human resource manager is interested in knowing if customer service skills of employees in department A are the same as in department B.What is most impo rtant to remember is that both the t and Z tests are formulated to arrive at the same conclusion but under different sampling conditions. Keep in mind as well that the Z test is used when the population mean is known. In addition when using a â€Å"t† test with a small sample base it is assumed the distribution of the data is normal; however, in larger samples the distribution does not have to be normal and a Z test can be used for comparative purposes. Further, in both situations the samples drawn must be on a random basis.The unfortunate limitation of both tests is in the fact that neither permit any conclusions to be drawn if not differences are found between the sample means or sample and population mean. However, one must always keep in mind that Z and â€Å"t† tests are basically the same as they compare two means to determine whether or not both samples come from the same population. Calculating the Z Test. The example presented below not only provides you with a formula for both population mean testing but sample mean testing as well.What must be closely watched is the effect on sample size with respect to any resulting Z value: Remember that the Z test requires a large sample and should a small sample be used the resulting Z value is contaminated. Formula: Sample vs. PopulationSample vs. Sample __ __ __ Z = / Z = X1 – X2 N 2(1/N + 1/N) Example Sample vs. Population:Suppose a product manager is interested in knowing if the number of faulty washing machines being produced in his/her plant in August is indicative of the over-all number of washing machines produced in all plants during the month of August. The product manager draws two samples from his/her assembly line: a sample of 10 and a sample of 100. The example being created is to show how the size of the sample bears directly on the resulting Z Test value. Formula: __ _ Z = / N Data.Sample Test Mean = 30 Population Mean = 25 (Industry Requirement) Population = 15 N = 10 __ Z = / N = 30-25 / 15 / 3. 16 = 15 / 4. 75 Z = 1. 58 Sample Test Mean = 30 Population Mean = 25 (Industry Requirement) Population = 15 N = 100 _ Z = / N = 30-25 / 15 / 10 = 5 / 1. 5 Z = 3. 33 Conclusion: The conclusion the production manager can draw from the above measurement example (N=10 and N=100) is relative to the size of the sample used to determine whether or not the sample is representative of the overall faulty washing machine production in August.Had the production manager set the level of confidence at 0. 01 (99%) the Z test score needed in order to reject the null hypothesis that no differences exist in washing machine production is +1. 96. A Z test value for the 10 sample situation of +1. 58 does not meet or exceed the required value of +1. 96. Therefore, the production manager concludes there is not statistically significant difference in the August faulty washing machine production rate for his/her plant and the overall faulty washing machine production rate of all plan ts.However, when the sample size is increased the resulting Z test value is extremely different. The 100 sample case, using the same values as in the 10 sample case, provides an entirely different scenario. By increasing the sample size tenfold the resulting Z test value is +3. 33. Obviously this numeric value far exceeds the required +1. 96 value and the production manager can safely conclude that statistically significant differences exist between the faulty washing machine productions in the production manager’s plant compared to the average faulty washing machine production rate of all plants.The reason for the difference in Z test values in knowing that as sample size increases so does the Z test value. Although not shown in this example, but also extremely important, is in knowing that when the variance of the sample differs from the population variance there will exist a lower Z test value. In the 100 sample test, should the resulting Z test value not met the required 1. 96 value the production manager could have concluded that the faulty washing machine production rate of his/her plant meets the production rate of all other plants together for the month of August.As scientific research and applied statistics application are not equipped to lend explanation as to why no differences are determined the only conclusion to be drawn is that the lack of differences is a direct result of sample size and variance. Example Sample vs. Sample vs. Sample Formula: __ __ Z = X1 – X2 2(1/N + 1/N) Example: Suppose the same product manager is interested in knowing if the number of faulty washing machines being produced in his/her plant in August is indicative of the number of faulty washing machines produced in a neighboring plant during the month of August.The product manager draws two samples: one from his/her assembly line and one from the neighboring plant: a sample of 100 is drawn from both plants. _ Data: : Sample 1: N=100 X=30 _ Sample 2: N=100 X=25 = 15 (known or assumed) _ _ Z = X1 – X2 2(1/N + 1/N) = 30 – 25 / (15)? (1/100 + 1/100) = 5 / v (225) (. 01 + . 01) = 5 / 4. 5 = 5 / 2. 12 = 2. 35 Conclusion: On the basis of the Z test value above the production manager would have to conclude that there exists a statistically significant difference in the production rate of the two plants at the . 1 confidence level (99%) as the required critical value of 1. 96 was matched and exceeded. As such it can be stated that the two washing machine samples are not representative of each other and differences occur. Should the product manager replicate the study and use only 10 washing machines per sample the resulting Z test value would be 1. 11 and the conclusion drawn would be that no statistically significant differences are present between the two groups and the population.Again this is an example of how sensitive the Z test is to sample size. One must always keep in mind that re-testing a product or service with artificia l conveyances (smaller sample size) in order to show that differences are not present is scientifically and professionally unacceptable. Research results must be allowed to fall wherein the statistical analysis places them. Doing otherwise is using the statistical process for reasons other than that which they were intended Drawing Conclusions from the Z Test.Business situations are not unlike any other professional situation, including the behavioral sciences, wherein the researcher or investigator is seeking information as to possible differences between samples or sample and the general population. When business managers or psychologists at any level are interested in making comparisons between products and or services the best-fit statistical tool for large sample situations is the Z test. However, the statistical value is only as good as the controls placed on it and at no time will the actual values give a reason as to why something has happened or why something has not.With r egard to the utilization of the Z test in business decision-making the following rules are always to be remembered: * Z Tests can be used to compare a sample to a population or sample to a sample for general population inference. * Z Tests are extremely susceptible to size of sample and variance and not useful when population variance is unknown. * Z Tests work best with very large samples but not with small samples as the correction factor cannot accommodate for the error associated with small samples. Z Tests are natural introductions to t Tests. * Z Tests work with only one (1) dependent variable. * Z Tests cannot work with correlated data. * Z Tests do not permit the making of strong inferences about differences or effects of the testing instrument or situation. * Z Tests have a non-parametric counterpart wherein small samples can be used. â€Å"t† Test 1a. Introduction to Difference Testing. Difference testing is used primarily to identify if there is a detectable differ ence between products, services, people, or situations.These tests are often conducted in business situations to: * Ensure a change in formulation or production introduces no significant change in the end product or service. * Substantiate a claim of a new or improved product or service * Confirm that a new ingredient/supplier does not affect the perceived attributes of the product or service. * Track changes during shelf-life of a product or the length of time of a service. Differences Between Two Independent Sample Means: Coke vs. Pepsi. Let us again look at a business example wherein the independent sample t-tests are sed to compare the means of two independently sampled groups. Example: do those drinking Coke differ on a performance variable (i. e. numbers of cans consumed in one week) compared to those drinking Pepsi. The individuals are randomly assigned to the Coke and Pepsi groups. With a confidence interval or ?. 05 (corresponding probability level of 95 %) the researcher c oncludes the two groups are significantly different in their means (average consumption rate of Coke and Pepsi over a one week period of time) if the t test value meets or exceeds the required value.If the t value does not meet the critical t value required then the research investigator simply concludes that no differences exist. Further explanation is not required. Presented below is a more useable situation. Example: As a manager of production let us suppose you are wanting to determine whether or not work performance is significantly (statistically) different in a noise related production line vs. a non-noise related production line. Individual Noise Production Non-Noise Production difference: 1-2 38 32 6 2 10 16 -6 3 84 57 27 4 36 28 8 5 50 55 -5 6 35 12 23 7 73 61 12 8 48 29 19 Mean 46. 8 36. 2 10. 5 Standard dev 23 19 12 Variance 529 361 N = 16 Using the raw data and formula above to calculate the t test value the actual t test value, when calculated properly, is 2. 43 . Always remember that S = Standard deviation and that the mean is often times shown by the capital letter M rather than a bar mark over a capital X.By going to the appropriate t tables in your text book find the critical value for t at the . 05 confidence interval. The value you should find is 1. 761 Differences Between Two Means of Correlated Samples: Red Bull vs. Power Drink. Again using a business example correlated t test statistical processes are used to determine whether or not there is a relationship of a particular measurement variable on a pre and post test basis. Often times when there exists a statistically significant relationship on a pre and post test basis the business manager can use the first measurement values to predict the second in future situations without having to present a post test situation.Example: Using the same data presented above let us assume that there are not two independent groups but the same group under two different conditions – noise p roduction environment and non-noise production environment. Individual Noise Production Non-Noise Production difference: 1-2 1 38 32 6 2 10 16 -6 3 84 57 27 4 36 28 8 5 50 55 -5 6 35 2 23 7 73 61 12 8 48 29 19 N = 8 The first step is to compute the mean of the differences: _ D = ? D N The second step is to square the differences: (6)? + (-6)? + (27)? + (8)? + (5)? + (23)? + (12)? + (19)? The third step is to calculate the standard error of the difference: SED = _ ?D – D? / n -1 n The last step is to compute the t test value: _ t = D / SED Using the raw data and formula above to calculate the t test value the actual t test value, when calculated properly, is 3. 087. By going to the appropriate t tables in your text book you can find the critical value to be, at the ? .05 confidence interval is 1. 895.The conclusion drawn is that the differences are statistically significantly different. When to Use Independent Mean or Correlated Sample Difference Testing. In research inv estigation situations the choice of using an independent sample t test of a correlated sample test is dependent upon whether or not the investigator is seeking to determine differences or relationships. In some situations the need to know whether or not a difference exists between two products or services is more important than knowing if there is a relationship between the two. For example: take the consulting psychologist wants to know if training program A has better success in training managers than training method B.The psychologist would select a sample of each training situations (generally ;30) and test the success of each sample and compare the success of program A with program B. The results would confirm if one training programs was better that the other. If, however, the psychologist was interested in determining how each program compared to the industry standard the programs would be compared, independently, to the population program mean. On the other hand should the c onsulting psychologist wants to determine whether or not a relationship exists, or predictability can be determine, from one program in two different situations or under two different situations a correlated t test is used.However, knowing the relationship in pre and post test situations are generally reserved for improvement situations. Drawing Conclusions for the t Test. Any conclusion drawn for the t test statistical is only as good as the research question asked and the null hypothesis formulated. â€Å"t† tests are only used for two sample groups, either on a pre post-test basis or between two samples (independent or dependent). The t test is optimized to deal with small sample numbers which is often the case with behavioral scientists in any venue. When samples are excessively large the t test becomes difficult to manage due to the mathematical calculations involved.